Demo – Integrated Paper

SOURCES OF HEALTH INFORMATION
Epidemiologists use primary and secondary data sources to calculate rates and conduct studies.
1.Primary data is the original data collected for a specific purpose by or for an investigator. For example, an epidemiologist may collect primary data by interviewing people who became ill after eating at a restaurant in order to identify which specific foods were consumed. Collecting primary data is expensive and time-consuming, and it usually is undertaken only when secondary data is not available.
2.Secondary data is data collected for another purpose by other individuals or organizations. Examples of sources of secondary data that are commonly used in epidemiological studies include birth and death certificates, population census records, patient medical records, disease registries, insurance claim forms and billing records, public health department case reports, and surveys of individuals and households.
VARIOUS SOURCES WITH DATA TYPES THAT CAN BE OBTAINED FROM THEM
1.Home Based records: includes
- PHC personal health card and adult treatment card
-PHC child health and child treatment card
-The healthy mother card
2.Health facility-based records:
-Tracer disease and outpatient attendance
-antenatal care and pregnancy outcome
-Family planning, immunization, growth monitoring
-in-patient care
-disease surveillance and notification forms
3. local Government based data
-Disease surveillance and notification(DSN)
-report of epidemics
4.Community based activities
5.Epidemiology research
6. Others: censors, voters’ registration, institutional data, registry, burial ground, verbal autopsy, religious house, traditional leaders, insurance services
PROBLEMS OF HEALTH INFORMATION
Various problems associated with obtaining, processing and usage of health information are:
1.Inadequacy of data
2.delay in forwarding data
3.Poor data storage
4.Falsification of records
5.Omission of vital information
6.Collection of unnecessary information
7.Differences in forms and formats of data collected
8.missing records
9.Poor feedback mechanism i.e. no feedback on reports
TYPES OF CLINICAL DATA
Clinical data is a staple resource for most health and medical research. Clinical data is either collected during the course of ongoing patient care or as part of a formal clinical trial program
Clinical data falls into six major categories:
1.Electronic health records: is obtained at the point of care at a medical facility, hospital, clinic or practice. May include Administrative and demographic information, diagnosis data, etc
2.Administrative data: are primarily hospital discharge data reported to a government agency
3. Claims data: Claims data describe the billable interactions (insurance claims) between insured patients and the healthcare delivery system. Claims data falls into four general categories: inpatient, outpatient, pharmacy, and enrollment. It may be obtained from the government or commercial health firms
4. Patient/Disease registries: Disease registries are clinical information systems that track a narrow range of key data for certain chronic conditions such as Alzheimer's Disease, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and asthma. Registries often provide critical information for managing patient conditions.
5. Health surveys: In order to provide an accurate evaluation of the population health, national surveys of the most common chronic conditions are generally conducted to provide prevalence estimates
6. Clinical trials data

(Britannica)
(https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/data/findclin)

FOOD SUBSTANCES
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals.
SOURCES OF FOOD
In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top.
Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight. Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the pants and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diets consist of both animals and plants and they are considered omnivores
The sources of food can be classified as:
1.Sunlight: Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth. It is the main food source for plants, algae and certain bacteria. Without this all organisms which depend on these organisms further up the food chain would be unable to exist, from coral to lions
2.Plants: Plants as a food source are often divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts. Plants have high carbohydrate, protein and lipid content, with carbohydrates mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars. Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with the notable exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores
3.Animals: Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal. Milk, egg, honey are examples of food products produced by animals
CLASSES OF FOOD AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The major classes of food are:
1.Carbohydrates: A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates are a major source of energy and they come mainly from grains, such as rice as well as fruits, root vegetables, dry beans and dairy products.
2.Proteins: They are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Meat, fish, seafood, eggs, dairy products, dry beans and bean products are good sources of protein. Its major functions include building, repairing and maintaining healthy body tissues.
3.Vitamins: A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism, either at all or not in sufficient quantities, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. they participate in different body metabolism such as maintaining healthy skin and hair, building bones and releasing and utilizing energy from foods. Vitamins can be classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
4.Fats: fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food. Fats can be found in foods such as meat, fish, seafood, dairy products, nuts, seeds and oils. Fats serve as an energy source. They prevent heat loss in extreme cold weather and protect organs against shock. They are responsible for making up part of our body cells and transporting fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K.
5.Minerals: Minerals are a group of essential nutrients which regulate many body functions such as fluid balance, muscle contraction and transmission of nerve impulses. Some minerals also contribute to body structure and build strong and healthy bones, such as calcium
6.Digestive fiber: Dietary fiber is the indigestible part found in plant. It helps stabilize blood sugar, promote gastrointestinal health and prevent constipation. Dietary fiber can be classified into soluble and insoluble fiber
7.Water: Water is the most abundant substance in human body and is also an essential nutrient to maintain our health. The major functions of water include regulation of body temperature, production of body fluids, transportation of nutrients and removal of waste products.
(Collins English Dictionary)
(National Geographic society)
(https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/static/100022.html)

DIARRHEA DISEASE
Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day (or more frequent passage than is normal for the individual). It is the second leading cause of death in Children under 5 years old. It is both treatable and preventable
Diarrhoea is usually a symptom of an infection in the intestinal tract, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms. Infection is spread through contaminated food or drinking-water, or from person-to-person as a result of poor hygiene
TYPES OF DIARRHEAS
Classification can be based on:
1. Duration
-acute watery diarrhoea – lasts several hours or days, and includes cholera;
-acute bloody diarrhoea – also called dysentery; and
-persistent diarrhoea – lasts 14 days or longer.
2. Number of people affected:
- Epidemic: affects more than the expected number of people in a community e.g in cholera
- Sporadic: affects fewer members of a community
Other types
3.Secretory Diarrhea: Secretory diarrhea means that there is an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption. There is little to no structural damage
4. Osmotic Diarrhea: Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea
5. Exudative diarrhea: This occurs with the presence of blood and pus in the stool. It is seen in Inflammatory bowel diseases
6.Inflammatory diarrhea: Occurs when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border leading to passive loss of protein rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these fluids
CAUSES
-Infection: Diarrhoea is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water. The most commonly identified causes of acute diarrhea in the United States are the bacteria Salmonella, Campylobacter, Shigella, and Escherichia coli. Adenovirus, Rotavirus and Norovirus are viruses that can cause diarrhea
Parasites such as Giardia spp., Entamoeba histolytica also cause diarrhea that involves chronic infection
-Malnutrition: Children who die from diarrhoea often suffer from underlying malnutrition, which makes them more vulnerable to diarrhea
-Source: Water contaminated with human faeces, for example, from sewage, septic tanks and latrines, is of particular concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhea.
- Endocrine-related causes: Sometimes, hormonal factors cause diarrhea. This is the case in Addison’s disease and carcinoid tumors
- Allergies and intolerances to certain foods (Celiac disease or lactose intolerance).
-Some medications and radiation therapy: Laxatives and other drugs, including antibiotics, can trigger diarrhea.
-Malabsorption: Malabsorption is the inability to absorb food fully, mostly from disorders in the small bowel, but also due to maldigestion from diseases of the pancreas.
Diarrhea can also:
- be spread from person to person
- be aggravated by unhygienic conditions
-Unsafe domestic water storage and handling is also an important risk factor.
-Fish and seafood from polluted water may also contribute to the disease
PREVENTION
-access to safe drinking-water;
-use of improved sanitation;
-hand washing with soap;
-exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life;
-good personal and food hygiene;
-health education about how infections spread; and
-rotavirus vaccination.
TREATMENT
key measures in treatment of diarrhea include:
-rehydration with Oral rehydration salt and intravenous fluids: For all cases of diarrhea, rehydration is vital.
-zinc supplements
-Antidiarrheal medication: Over-the-counter antidiarrheal medications are also available. These include loperamide (Imodium) and bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol).
-Antibiotics: Antibiotics can only treat diarrhea due to bacterial infections
-Nutrient rich foods
-Consulting a health professional esp. in cases of persistence
ACCOMPANYING SYMPTOMS
Diarrhea refers to watery stools but it may be accompanied by other symptoms. These include:
-stomach pain
-abdominal cramps
-bloating
-weight loss
-fever
-body aches
-chills

(https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease)
(https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/158634#seeing-a-doctor)
(https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4108-diarrhea)

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
Introduction
Human life cycle is the cycle that occurs in human beings and involves a time period for different stages of life. The ideal nutrition and physical well-being ensure prosperity of each stage and helps humans to live more.
REASONS FOR STUDYING HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
1.To clarify human behavior
2.To protect and guard against complications that can arise
3.To understand the normal stages of development
4.To gain life experience
STAGES OF HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
There are six basic stages of human life cycle:
1.pre-natal stage
2.Infancy
3. Childhood
4.Adolescence
5.Adulthood
6.Old age

1.Pre-natal stage: the process encompassing the period from the formation of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to birth (or parturition). The prenatal development period covers the time from conception to birth and is sometimes described in terms of trimesters (first, second, and third) or of three stages (germinal, embryonic, and fetal)
2.Infancy: the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language approximately one to two years later. Infants display behavioral reactions suggestive of emotional states as early as the first three or four months of life. The four earliest emotional states they seem to experience are surprise, distress (in response to discomfort), relaxation, and excitement
3.Childhood: period of the human lifespan between infancy and adolescence, extending from ages 1–2 to 12–13. It includes 3 stages: Toddler (between the ages of 1-3 years), Preschooler(3-5years) and middle childhood(5-12years)
During Childhood, Various changes occur. Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking. In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities.
4.Adolescents: In this human life cycle stage, a child grows into an adolescent through puberty period. Puberty is the process of physical changes where a child's body matures into an adult body that is capable of sexual reproduction. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an adolescent as any person between ages 10 and 19. However in some societies, adolescence typically refers to the period between ages 12 and 20 and is roughly equated to teens
5.Adulthood: adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years. Physically, early and middle adulthood are marked by slow, gradual declines in body functioning, which accelerate as old age is reached
6.Old age: also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Definitions of old age are not consistent from the standpoints of biology, demography (conditions of mortality and morbidity), employment and retirement, and sociology. For statistical and public administrative purposes, however, old age is frequently defined as 60 or 65 years of age or older

ADOLESCENCE
It is the phase of transition from childhood to adulthood. starting from age 10/11 to 19/20. It is one of the most difficult periods of development because changes occur rapidly for them to adjust. It is divided into 3 stages:
-Early adolescence: 11-15years
-Middle adolescence: 15-17years
-Late adolescence: 17- 20years

CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE
Most significant change during this period is puberty due to maturation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. Females tend to attain puberty 2years earlier than boys. There are characteristic physical and psychological changes
PHYSICAL CHANGES/CHARACTERISTICS
1.Rapid increase in height and weight (referred to as a growth spurt)
2.Development of secondary sexual characteristics
3.Deep and loud voices in males
4.Appearance of certain body curvatures especially the hips and breast
5.Pubic hair growth, etc.
CHARACTER CHANGES
1. Heightened intellectual function
2.increased sexual drive
3. They become more active speakers
4. increase aggressiveness and deviant behaviors
5. Isolation from adults
6. Cognitive development and expression of interest in writing, sports, poetry and music
SOCIAL CHANGES
1.They decide career paths and start taking responsibilities
2.Search for identity and independence
3.Development of peer groups within themselves
4.Some start considering partners
CHALLENGES FACED DURING ADOLESCENCE
1.Peer pressure
2.Tendency to drug and substance abuse
3.Engagement in promiscuous sexual activities
4.Violence, crimes and delinquency
5.Schizophrenia, stress and depression
6.Self-esteem problems
(Britannica.com)
(https://www.vedantu.com/biology/human-life-cycle)

FOOD SUBSTANCES
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals.
SOURCES OF FOOD
In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top.
Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight. Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the pants and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diets consist of both animals and plants and they are considered omnivores
The sources of food can be classified as:
1.Sunlight: Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth. It is the main food source for plants, algae and certain bacteria. Without this all organisms which depend on these organisms further up the food chain would be unable to exist, from coral to lions
2.Plants: Plants as a food source are often divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts. Plants have high carbohydrate, protein and lipid content, with carbohydrates mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars. Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with the notable exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores
3.Animals: Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal. Milk, egg, honey are examples of food products produced by animals
CLASSES OF FOOD AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The major classes of food are:
1.Carbohydrates: A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates are a major source of energy and they come mainly from grains, such as rice as well as fruits, root vegetables, dry beans and dairy products.
2.Proteins: They are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Meat, fish, seafood, eggs, dairy products, dry beans and bean products are good sources of protein. Its major functions include building, repairing and maintaining healthy body tissues.
3.Vitamins: A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism, either at all or not in sufficient quantities, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. they participate in different body metabolism such as maintaining healthy skin and hair, building bones and releasing and utilizing energy from foods. Vitamins can be classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
4.Fats: fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food. Fats can be found in foods such as meat, fish, seafood, dairy products, nuts, seeds and oils. Fats serve as an energy source. They prevent heat loss in extreme cold weather and protect organs against shock. They are responsible for making up part of our body cells and transporting fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K.
5.Minerals: Minerals are a group of essential nutrients which regulate many body functions such as fluid balance, muscle contraction and transmission of nerve impulses. Some minerals also contribute to body structure and build strong and healthy bones, such as calcium
6.Digestive fiber: Dietary fiber is the indigestible part found in plant. It helps stabilize blood sugar, promote gastrointestinal health and prevent constipation. Dietary fiber can be classified into soluble and insoluble fiber
7.Water: Water is the most abundant substance in human body and is also an essential nutrient to maintain our health. The major functions of water include regulation of body temperature, production of body fluids, transportation of nutrients and removal of waste products.
(Collins English Dictionary)
(National Geographic society)
(https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/static/100022.html)

DIARRHEA DISEASE
Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day (or more frequent passage than is normal for the individual). It is the second leading cause of death in Children under 5 years old. It is both treatable and preventable
Diarrhoea is usually a symptom of an infection in the intestinal tract, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms. Infection is spread through contaminated food or drinking-water, or from person-to-person as a result of poor hygiene
TYPES OF DIARRHEAS
Classification can be based on:
1. Duration
-acute watery diarrhoea – lasts several hours or days, and includes cholera;
-acute bloody diarrhoea – also called dysentery; and
-persistent diarrhoea – lasts 14 days or longer.
2. Number of people affected:
- Epidemic: affects more than the expected number of people in a community e.g in cholera
- Sporadic: affects fewer members of a community
Other types
3.Secretory Diarrhea: Secretory diarrhea means that there is an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption. There is little to no structural damage
4. Osmotic Diarrhea: Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea
5. Exudative diarrhea: This occurs with the presence of blood and pus in the stool. It is seen in Inflammatory bowel diseases
6.Inflammatory diarrhea: Occurs when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border leading to passive loss of protein rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these fluids
CAUSES
-Infection: Diarrhoea is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water. The most commonly identified causes of acute diarrhea in the United States are the bacteria Salmonella, Campylobacter, Shigella, and Escherichia coli. Adenovirus, Rotavirus and Norovirus are viruses that can cause diarrhea
Parasites such as Giardia spp., Entamoeba histolytica also cause diarrhea that involves chronic infection
-Malnutrition: Children who die from diarrhoea often suffer from underlying malnutrition, which makes them more vulnerable to diarrhea
-Source: Water contaminated with human faeces, for example, from sewage, septic tanks and latrines, is of particular concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhea.
- Endocrine-related causes: Sometimes, hormonal factors cause diarrhea. This is the case in Addison’s disease and carcinoid tumors
- Allergies and intolerances to certain foods (Celiac disease or lactose intolerance).
-Some medications and radiation therapy: Laxatives and other drugs, including antibiotics, can trigger diarrhea.
-Malabsorption: Malabsorption is the inability to absorb food fully, mostly from disorders in the small bowel, but also due to maldigestion from diseases of the pancreas.
Diarrhea can also:
- be spread from person to person
- be aggravated by unhygienic conditions
-Unsafe domestic water storage and handling is also an important risk factor.
-Fish and seafood from polluted water may also contribute to the disease
PREVENTION
-access to safe drinking-water;
-use of improved sanitation;
-hand washing with soap;
-exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life;
-good personal and food hygiene;
-health education about how infections spread; and
-rotavirus vaccination.
TREATMENT
key measures in treatment of diarrhea include:
-rehydration with Oral rehydration salt and intravenous fluids: For all cases of diarrhea, rehydration is vital.
-zinc supplements
-Antidiarrheal medication: Over-the-counter antidiarrheal medications are also available. These include loperamide (Imodium) and bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol).
-Antibiotics: Antibiotics can only treat diarrhea due to bacterial infections
-Nutrient rich foods
-Consulting a health professional esp. in cases of persistence
ACCOMPANYING SYMPTOMS
Diarrhea refers to watery stools but it may be accompanied by other symptoms. These include:
-stomach pain
-abdominal cramps
-bloating
-weight loss
-fever
-body aches
-chills

(https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease)
(https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/158634#seeing-a-doctor)
(https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4108-diarrhea)

SOURCES OF HEALTH INFORMATION
Epidemiologists use primary and secondary data sources to calculate rates and conduct studies.
1.Primary data is the original data collected for a specific purpose by or for an investigator. For example, an epidemiologist may collect primary data by interviewing people who became ill after eating at a restaurant in order to identify which specific foods were consumed. Collecting primary data is expensive and time-consuming, and it usually is undertaken only when secondary data is not available.
2.Secondary data is data collected for another purpose by other individuals or organizations. Examples of sources of secondary data that are commonly used in epidemiological studies include birth and death certificates, population census records, patient medical records, disease registries, insurance claim forms and billing records, public health department case reports, and surveys of individuals and households.
VARIOUS SOURCES WITH DATA TYPES THAT CAN BE OBTAINED FROM THEM
1.Home Based records: includes
- PHC personal health card and adult treatment card
-PHC child health and child treatment card
-The healthy mother card
2.Health facility-based records:
-Tracer disease and outpatient attendance
-antenatal care and pregnancy outcome
-Family planning, immunization, growth monitoring
-in-patient care
-disease surveillance and notification forms
3. local Government based data
-Disease surveillance and notification(DSN)
-report of epidemics
4.Community based activities
5.Epidemiology research
6. Others: censors, voters’ registration, institutional data, registry, burial ground, verbal autopsy, religious house, traditional leaders, insurance services
PROBLEMS OF HEALTH INFORMATION
Various problems associated with obtaining, processing and usage of health information are:
1.Inadequacy of data
2.delay in forwarding data
3.Poor data storage
4.Falsification of records
5.Omission of vital information
6.Collection of unnecessary information
7.Differences in forms and formats of data collected
8.missing records
9.Poor feedback mechanism i.e. no feedback on reports
TYPES OF CLINICAL DATA
Clinical data is a staple resource for most health and medical research. Clinical data is either collected during the course of ongoing patient care or as part of a formal clinical trial program
Clinical data falls into six major categories:
1.Electronic health records: is obtained at the point of care at a medical facility, hospital, clinic or practice. May include Administrative and demographic information, diagnosis data, etc
2.Administrative data: are primarily hospital discharge data reported to a government agency
3. Claims data: Claims data describe the billable interactions (insurance claims) between insured patients and the healthcare delivery system. Claims data falls into four general categories: inpatient, outpatient, pharmacy, and enrollment. It may be obtained from the government or commercial health firms
4. Patient/Disease registries: Disease registries are clinical information systems that track a narrow range of key data for certain chronic conditions such as Alzheimer's Disease, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and asthma. Registries often provide critical information for managing patient conditions.
5. Health surveys: In order to provide an accurate evaluation of the population health, national surveys of the most common chronic conditions are generally conducted to provide prevalence estimates
6. Clinical trials data

(Britannica)
(https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/data/findclin)

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Human life cycle is the cycle that occurs in human beings and involves a time period for different stages of life. The ideal nutrition and physical well-being ensure prosperity of each stage and helps humans to live more.

REASONS FOR STUDYING HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
1.To clarify human behavior
2.To protect and guard against complications that can arise
3.To understand the normal stages of development
4.To gain life experience

STAGES OF HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
There are six basic stages of human life cycle:
1.pre-natal stage
2.Infancy
3. Childhood
4.Adolescence
5.Adulthood
6.Old age

1.Pre-natal stage: the process encompassing the period from the formation of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to birth (or parturition). The prenatal development period covers the time from conception to birth and is sometimes described in terms of trimesters (first, second, and third) or of three stages (germinal, embryonic, and fetal)
2.Infancy: the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language approximately one to two years later. Infants display behavioral reactions suggestive of emotional states as early as the first three or four months of life. The four earliest emotional states they seem to experience are surprise, distress (in response to discomfort), relaxation, and excitement
3.Childhood: period of the human lifespan between infancy and adolescence, extending from ages 1–2 to 12–13. It includes 3 stages: Toddler (between the ages of 1-3 years), Preschooler(3-5years) and middle childhood(5-12years)
During Childhood, Various changes occur. Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking. In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities.
4.Adolescents: In this human life cycle stage, a child grows into an adolescent through puberty period. Puberty is the process of physical changes where a child's body matures into an adult body that is capable of sexual reproduction. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an adolescent as any person between ages 10 and 19. However in some societies, adolescence typically refers to the period between ages 12 and 20 and is roughly equated to teens
5.Adulthood: adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years. Physically, early and middle adulthood are marked by slow, gradual declines in body functioning, which accelerate as old age is reached
6.Old age: also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Definitions of old age are not consistent from the standpoints of biology, demography (conditions of mortality and morbidity), employment and retirement, and sociology. For statistical and public administrative purposes, however, old age is frequently defined as 60 or 65 years of age or older

ADOLESCENCE
It is the phase of transition from childhood to adulthood. starting from age 10/11 to 19/20. It is one of the most difficult periods of development because changes occur rapidly for them to adjust. It is divided into 3 stages:
-Early adolescence: 11-15years
-Middle adolescence: 15-17years
-Late adolescence: 17- 20years

CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE
Most significant change during this period is puberty due to maturation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. Females tend to attain puberty 2years earlier than boys. There are characteristic physical and psychological changes
PHYSICAL CHANGES/CHARACTERISTICS
1.Rapid increase in height and weight (referred to as a growth spurt)
2.Development of secondary sexual characteristics
3.Deep and loud voices in males
4.Appearance of certain body curvatures especially the hips and breast
5.Pubic hair growth, etc.
CHARACTER CHANGES
1. Heightened intellectual function
2.increased sexual drive
3. They become more active speakers
4. increase aggressiveness and deviant behaviors
5. Isolation from adults
6. Cognitive development and expression of interest in writing, sports, poetry and music
SOCIAL CHANGES
1.They decide career paths and start taking responsibilities
2.Search for identity and independence
3.Development of peer groups within themselves
4.Some start considering partners
CHALLENGES FACED DURING ADOLESCENCE
1.Peer pressure
2.Tendency to drug and substance abuse
3.Engagement in promiscuous sexual activities
4.Violence, crimes and delinquency
5.Schizophrenia, stress and depression
6.Self-esteem problems
(Britannica.com)
(https://www.vedantu.com/biology/human-life-cycle)